There is increasing scientific focus on the mechanisms that occur within the body and brain of depressed patients. Indeed, it is becoming much clearer that inflammation significantly contributes to the cause and progress of depression, and that this triggers a myriad of processes that all contribute to the symptoms associated with the condition. It is difficult to comprehend that inflammation can trigger depression, because it is generally thought of as a response to injury or irritation that is characterised by physical processes such as pain and swelling.

However, inflammation need not be physical or obvious, and inflammatory processes and brain-immune interactions are now known to be involved in the development of major depression. Inflammation is certainly suggested to contribute to the dysfunction of biological systems involved in the production of important neurotransmitters (brain hormones) such as serotonin and noradrenalin. Indeed, increased levels of inflammatory products called cytokines (produced by immune cells, and involved in relaying messages between cells) have consistently been reported in patients with depression. Pro-inflammatory cytokines have many physiological functions but, significantly, have been reported to modulate central nervous system functions including a process called neurogenesis, which is simply the method by which nerve cells are generated. Excessive inflammation, and the production of cytokines amongst other things, causes a series of processes that ultimately damage neurones leading to their death. When cells within the brain die, this causes atrophy, or shrinking, by which there is loss of brain gray matter. Structural brain changes detected by a process called MRI scanning in depressed patients have been reported in several brain regions.

However, there appears to be hope offered through supplementing with fish oil. EPA is an omega-3 fatty acid known to help the symptoms of depression and reduce levels of inflammatory cytokines, whilst producing beneficial anti-inflammatory products. There is increasing scientific interest in the ability of EPA to prevent neuronal cell death and therefore reduce or prevent gray matter loss. Much of the pioneering work has focused on the role of EPA in Huntington’s disease with extremely promising results. Given the evidence that omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial for conditions in which there is reduced gray matter atrophy, such as Huntington’s disease, supplementing with ethyl-EPA may have further positive benefits on gray matter volume in individuals with depression, and further studies to support this hypothesis are certainly warranted.

Puri BK, Bydder GM, Manku MS, Clarke A, Waldman AD, Beckmann CF. (2008)
Reduction in cerebral atrophy associated with ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid treatment in patients with Huntington’s disease. J Int Med Res. 36: 896-905.

Song C, Wang H. Cytokines mediated inflammation and decreased neurogenesis in animal models of depression.Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010 [Epub ahead of print]

Indeed, several studies have highlighted that abnormal cell membrane fatty acid composition is related to risk and incidence of major depression, and that supplementation with omega-3, and specifically with EPA, appears to normalize fatty acid levels and reduce the symptoms associated with this condition. However different studies can report different findings, and whilst several studies may appear to give varied and often conflicting results, performing a meta-analysis gives an indication of general findings by ‘pooling’ the data from several studies to give an overall picture and therefore adding clarity to a concept.

A recent meta-analysis of 14 studies comparing the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids between depressive patients and control subjects found that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels were significantly lower in those individuals suffering from depression (Lin et al, 2010). Because the primary sources of these long-chain omega-3 fats are fish and shellfish, it is not surprising that those individuals with the highest consumption are the least likely to suffer from depression (Suominen-Taipale et al, 2010). Treating people who suffer with depression using fish oils is therefore a viable method for alleviating symptoms whilst restoring omega-3 levels. Given that low levels of omega-3 are also associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, as well as several other chronic disorders and conditions, the overall health benefits of raising omega-3 levels reach out much further as a nutritional approach to improving health.

Encouragingly, improvements in depressive symptoms can be seen as quickly as 8 weeks after commencing treatment. Indeed, a group of Montreal researchers have recently confirmed that taking omega 3 fish oil supplements, at doses higher than that normally consumed in an average diet, is superior to placebo in treating symptoms and that results can be observed within a two month time period (Lespérance et al, 2010). The results of this particular study also confirm EPA to be the predominant active ingredient responsible for the benefits of omega-3.

A meta-analysis of 28 trials investigating as to whether either EPA or docosahexanoeic acid (DHA) or both are responsible for the reported benefits showed that those trials in which EPA was the predominant or only fatty acid used, gave the most significant findings. Furthermore, it was suggested that the effects of 1g daily of EPA could be enhanced and prolonged by the addition of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), an omega-6 fatty acid found in evening primrose oil (Martins 2009). Given that 1 in 4 individuals will suffer from depression at some point in their life, it is encouraging to know that there is a safe and natural way not only to treat depression but also as a method that could reduce the possibility of developing the condition in the first place.

Suominen-Taipale AL, Partonen T, Turunen AW, Männistö S, Jula A, Verkasalo PK.Fish consumption and omega-3 polyunsaturated Fatty acids in relation to depressive episodes: a cross-sectional analysis. PLoS One. 2010 May 7;5:e10530.

I’m giving a talk in a couple of weeks at the Bristol Eco Veggie Fayre on plant based sources of Essential Fatty Acids, focusing mainly on echium oil. If you want to find out more about how echium seed oil compares with other oils such as flax and hemp, check out this new website which has some really good comparisons www.vegetarian-omega3.com. It would be great to see some of you at the Veggie fayre; my talk is being held in the Veggie Nutritional Room on Sunday 30th at 2pm. It’s a fun day out for all the family, with lots of good veggie food and free samples of vegetarian friendly products to take home!

It is thought that people with IBS have an abnormal gastrocolic response. This is the physiological reflex that controls the movements of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). Simply put, this mechanism controls the movement (peristalsis) that pushes food through and out of the gut. In IBS, simply eating or drinking can cause an over reaction of this process resulting in painful cramps, often resulting in diarrhoea.

Whilst the action of eating causes an increase in gut mobility, eating large meals seems to cause excessive cramping and bouts of diarrhoea, so a key tip is to try to eat small amounts and to try to eat regularly. Many people with IBS also find there are specific dietary triggers that can result in discomfort and bowel dysfunction. Knowing what foods to include, and what foods to avoid, can make a dramatic impact on regulating or avoiding specific symptoms.

Several gut peptides (types of protein), and neuropeptides are involved in the control of the gastrocolic reflex, of which serotonin is one such example. Serotonin, a neurotransmitter peptide, is generally known for its role in the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, and some cognitive functions including memory and learning. However approximately 80% of the serotonin is actually produced in the body by the enterochromaffin cells found in the gut lining. The function of serotonin within the gut is to control muscle contractions, thereby functioning to maintain the movement of the intestines. Importantly however, many IBS sufferers can directly link stress to the onset of symptoms and it appears that there may, in some cases, be a link between serotonin, stress and IBS.

During a stressful experience there is a complex set of interactions between the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pituitary gland (also part of the brain) and the adrenal glands (at the top of each kidney). Several types of neurotransmitters are involved in this system, collectively known as the HPA-axis, which is thought to be dysfunctional in individuals with several conditions including fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and depression to which IBS is often linked. Sufferers of these conditions can have numerous abnormalities in their hormonal, metabolic and brain-chemical activity including levels of serotonin. Dysregulation of the serotonin system has been found in individuals with IBS, with low levels associated with constipation, and high levels with diarrhoea (Sikander et al, 2009).

The link between stress, diet and IBS means that suffers can help reduce symptoms not only by modifying their diet, but also from reducing tension and stress through simple relaxation techniques such as: meditation, yoga and the Alexander Technique. Certainly living with IBS is far from pleasant, but with the right diet and learning how to manage stress, there is no reason why IBS should not be controllable. Let you control your IBS and not your IBS control you!

Sikander A, Rana SV, Prasad KK. (2009) Role of serotonin in gastrointestinal motility and irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Chim Acta. 403:47-55.

In addition, high intake of fat, especially saturated fat derived from animal products, can increase both lipid and cholesterol levels, both of which are know to increase the risk of developing heart disease. By combining a high fat diet with one that is low in fibre results in a diet that carries an even stronger risk of developing heart disease. Furthermore, consuming too much protein is known to put strain on the kidneys, which can result in possible renal injury. Because the body cannot store protein, once the body’s needs are met, any excess must then be removed. This excess protein is converted by the liver into compounds, like urea, which are finally eliminated through the kidneys as part of urine. High protein intake also causes loss of calcium from the bones into the blood with corresponding implications on bone health.
Generally, whilst the immediate positive benefit attributed to the Atkins diet is quick and relatively easy weight loss, the long-term consequences on cardiac, renal, bone and liver health must be all be taken into consideration. However, the ‘new’ version of the Atkins diet differs from its older counterpart in that rather than excluding carbohydrate completely, after a certain amount of weeks (depending on weight loss targets), carbohydrate is slowly reintroduced. The diet then continues, but as a ‘low-carbohydrate’ diet.

On the whole, this would appear to be a better option to restricting carbohydrate completely. However, it’s still a diet that is very low in fruit, vegetables and fibre, so in terms of digestive health, it’s not in keeping with fibre and ‘complex’ carbohydrate recommendations. Complex carbohydrates are important because they are broken down into glucose slowly, therefore providing a gradual steady stream of energy throughout the day. Eating a diet that has plenty of complex carbohydrate can help reduce the chances of developing type II diabetes for example.

The simple truth is that anyone carrying too much weight has most likely consumed more calories than they should have for some period of time. Whilst you can lose weight on anything that helps you to eat less, it does not mean it’s good for you. If you want to lose weight you need to look the amount of energy you put into your body and compare it to the amount of energy you burn. Men need approximately 2500 Kcal daily and women 2000 Kcal daily. So what do we need these calories for? Our daily calorie intake can be divided into the 3 following areas: firstly, basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the minimum amount of energy needed for our bodies to function on a daily basis and includes things like our heart beating and our breathing. Secondly is something called diet induced thermogenesis (DIT) which is the energy used when we digest our food. Finally, we need energy for physical activity, to move and to exercise and the more active a person is, the more energy they use.

Consuming more calories than we need will simply make the body store them as fat for ‘later use’. With our chaotic modern lifestyles, many of us exercise much less than we should, driving places rather than walking, with many of us having office jobs that require little, if no physical activity. The down side of all this is that sedentary individuals are much more likely to be overweight than active ones. All in all, it’s pretty easy in today’s world to pile on the pounds. Fad diets simply target vulnerable individuals who want a quick fix, and whilst the Atkins may deliver in regards to weight loss, the long-term consequences for our health may outweigh the short-term benefits. If you are really keen to shed those pounds, think about easy changes you can make to you life style and try being more active as well as adjusting what you eat to your level of activity. You simply don’t need as much energy to sit on the sofa watching television as you would playing sport for example. Being active also has numerous other benefits for our stress levels, not to mention its release of ‘happy hormones’.

The human brain is a complex organ that controls our senses, our movements, receives information, analyses information, and stores this information as memories. Dementia, simply put, means ‘deprived of the mind’ and, contrary to what many of us consider an acceptable part of growing old, memory loss and dementia are not a natural part of the ageing process. Scientists are now suggesting that the omega-3 EPA, found in fish oil, can help. Like any organ, the brain needs nurturing, and if we provide our brain with the correct nutrients then we can help to ensure the function of our brain remains at its most efficient.

For those of you interested in finding out more about how EPA helps preventing memory loss, offering help for Alzheimer’s sufferers, the full article is available here: EPA fish oil and its role in Alzheimer’s disease risk

I’ve recently published an article on Omega 3s and fatty liver disease and the study led by Dr Gail Masterton and I would be very interested to hear your feed back!

So why is it that pharmaceutical drugs, with such well documented findings in terms of their negative health effects, continue to be prescribed? It certainly appears that they are offered as a ‘quick fix’ regardless of the long term consequences. Originally discovered in the 1950s, anti-psychotics were found to block receptors in the dopamine pathway and used quite successfully in the treatment of schizophrenia and bi-polar disorder before being introduced as treatment for dementia where their actions serve as nothing other than “chemical restraints”. It seems shameful that pharmaceutical companies can benefit in such situations whilst nutraceutical companies struggle to get clearance for health claims from the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). This government agency is responsible for ensuring that medicines and medical devices work and are acceptably safe, and consistently rejects claims for many well-known safe and commonly used nutritional products.

The benefits of fish oil and the role of long-chain fatty acids in brain chemistry and in dementia are generally accepted but not endorsed. Ironically the side effects of consuming fish oils include only relatively minor complications (gastrointestinal upset, nausea, headaches) when compared with the potentially very serious sides effects of some pharmaceutical products. Given that long-chain fatty acids are involved in the dopamine pathway influencing dopamine concentration, number of vesicles and D2 receptors, and have been beneficial in studies where the dopamine pathway is known to be involved such as schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), would it not be prudent to suggest a role of fatty acids as a regular or add-on treatment in individuals with dementia? The recent positive findings of the role of eicosapentaenoic acid EPA in reducing cerebral atrophy in Huntington’s disease is certainly indicative that non-pharmaceutical products need to be investigated and that their role in dementia, not only in the treatment but in the prevention of the condition, is sadly underrated at the expense of the patient.

Ballard C, Hanney ML, Theodoulou M, Douglas S, McShane R, Kossakowski K, Gill R, Juszczak E, Yu LM, Jacoby R; DART-AD investigators. (2009) The dementia antipsychotic withdrawal trial (DART-AD): long-term follow-up of a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2009 8:151-7.

Puri BK, Bydder GM, Manku MS, Clarke A, Waldman AD, Beckmann CF. (2008) Reduction in cerebral atrophy associated with ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid treatment in patients with Huntington’s disease. J Int Med Res. 36:896-905

The Glycemic Index

The brain needs energy supplied at an even rate in order to function optimally. Sudden peaks in blood sugar will adversely affect behaviour, anxiety, depression, and fatigue, so it is particularly important for people with depression to keep their blood glucose levels even. Although commonly known for its diabetes and weight loss benefits, the glycemic index (most commonly referred to as GI index), which ranks carbohydrates according to their effect on blood glucose levels, is a good guide to informing us which foods to include as part of a healthy diet, and indeed which foods to limit.

While all carbohydrate foods are eventually broken down into glucose, quick-release simple carbohydrates (such as high sugar foods, glucose and fructose) are broken down more quickly into glucose than complex carbohydrates (such as wholemeal grains), releasing glucose rapidly into the bloodstream. Repeated ‘spikes’ of glucose can decrease insulin sensitivity, increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes, as well as promoting oxidative stress in the veins and arteries – a cause of coronary heart disease. After the highs come the energy-sapping blood sugar lows and, frequently, strong urges to reach for another sugary carbohydrate snack to perk us up. Indeed individuals who suffer from atypical depression (a subtype of depression) often overeat and report an almost irresistible craving for carbohydrates.

White sugar and other refined carbohydrates, such as those found in processed white bread and white pasta, white rice and most convenience foods, supply few nutrients to the body but use up important B vitamins, which are essential for our nervous and immune systems, as well as healthy digestion. Avoiding refined foods and sugar, as well as consuming foods with a low GI value, will help to keep blood sugar levels even. Perhaps a more accurate reference guide to prevent blood sugar spikes is the Glycemic Load(GL) ranking system, which is based on a food’s GI value and average portion size. For example, whilst an apple is not low GI, it has a low GL and will barely influence blood sugar levels.

Micronutrient deficiencies

It is extemely common for depression sufferers to have low levels of B vitamins and essential minerals such as zinc, selenium and magnesium. These water-soluble vitamins and minerals must be consumed daily to avoid depletion. Deficiency can, in turn, hinder the body’s ability to utilise specific omega-3 fatty acids, which are known to lift our mood by elevating serotonin and regulating levels of this important neurotransmitter.

EPA, a long-chain omega-3 fatty acid found in fish oil, not only influences serotonin and dopamine in the brain, but is also converted to powerful anti-inlammatories via a series of enzyme-mediated steps. It is these enzymes that rely on the presence of B vitamins and essential minerals in order to function, without which the body’s production of natural anti-inflammatories is minimal, and can even result in the production of inflammatory substances. Combining a good nutritional vitamin and mineral supplement with 1 gram EPA daily (or 4 capsules Vegepa) can help to balance serotonin levels and alleviate the symptoms of depression.

Carbohydrate cravings are also linked with low levels of chromium, which helps to regulate blood sugar levels and reduce cravings. This is because for blood sugar to provide energy, it must be escorted into each of our cells where the energy conversion takes place. Insulin then ‘unlocks’ the cell, allowing glucose to pass in. But there is a missing link. Insulin doesn’t work properly unless biologically active chromium is present as a cofactor (much like a catalyst).

With many modern food processing methods, up to 80% of chromium is lost – particularly with whole wheat and raw sugar when they are processed to white flour and refined sugar. If we regularly opt for these refined foods over their healthy wholegrain relatives, chromium levels within the body can easily become depleted.

Whilst it is likely a low priority during episodes of low mood to concentrate on our eating habits, following a few general guidelines can help to restore healthy brain chemistry and minimise sugar-induced mood swings.

- Avoid processed foods.

- Keep red meat to a minimum or eat organic (red meat is high in inflammatory omega-6 unless animals are fed on natural grass).

- Drink plenty of water, as the brain needs to be hydrated to function at its best.

– Don’t forget your ‘five a day’. Make sure you get plenty of vitamins and minerals by eating a wide variety of fresh fruit and vegetables. If you eat them raw they’ll supply even more nutrients.

– Eat two portions of oily fish weekly to top up on omega-3, containing the natural antidepressant EPA, or take 2 capsules of Vegepa morning and night.

If you found this article interesting, you might like to read more about anti depression foods.

Our understanding of the significant health benefits associated with fish oil supplementation has come a long, long way since scientists’ original discovery, back in the 1950s, that cod liver oil was a rich source of fatty acids. Researchers have since then progressed far beyond the basic understanding that fish oil is a promoter of general good health, and moved onto the next phase of innovation – investigating which particular elements within this oil are biologically active and whether a physical deficiency in this bioactive element results in some degree of physical deterioration. Indeed, fish oil contains two major fatty acids EPA and DHA and it is only really in recent years that these important fatty acids have been investigated individually rather than dumping them in the same boat with the generic label of omega-3.

DHA is the most abundant omega-3 fatty acid in cell membranes, present in all organs and most abundant in the brain and retina. In contrast, EPA is present in minute quantities. It could be easily assumed that DHA is the more dominant of the two fatty acids and put all of our focus here. However whilst DHA has a primarily structural role, EPA plays an important functional role. In actual fact whist EPA and DHA are both considered to be important regulators of immunity, platelet aggregation and inflammation, their influencing bi-products arise from very different pathways and it is therefore not surprising that their mechanism of action will differ.

So what is my problem with the latest headline? Well what’s very misleading with this is the loose use of the word “fish”. The study didn’t even have a vague whiff of fish about it but was conducted using a DHA supplement and a dummy placebo. The importance of this is that the information put forward to eager ears gives the impression that all that mackerel eating is a waste of time. But hear me out. This study took but one of the major fatty acids associated with fish oil, showed no benefit, but happily used the word fish to summarise the findings. If we recall, fish oil contains two important fatty acids, DHA and EPA. It is becoming increasingly clear that the marked differences between the effects of EPA and DHA mean that we can no longer generalise the effects of ‘fish oil’ as a reservoir of omega-3. EPA not only plays a major role in cell signalling but also contributes to the compaction and stabilisation of neurones. Indeed previous studies have shown that high plasma EPA concentration may decrease the risk of dementia and that EPA can actually reduce the atrophy associated with the shrinking brain. I’m not objecting to their findings that DHA is not the fatty acid which plays a role in dementia, rather it’s the fact that the message implies that it we should now question or even rule out the protective role of fish altogether. But when we dig deeper and unravel the scientific evidence and put that on our plates to eat, we see that things are a little more convoluted than we initially thought – well, if you read the recent headlines, that is. Just because the bigwigs are now telling us that DHA won’t save our brains (this week at least) it doesn’t mean that we should now disregard our efforts to include fish as part of our diets in our bid to prevent age-related mental decline. I, for one, shall be continuing to get my twice weekly portions in and I hope you will too. Do remember that once again, it’s not black or white, to fish or not to fish.